Kean University

I never thought this day would come as fast as it did. I feel like this year is just going to fly by and the next thing I know I’ll be packing to go to college, but let me not get ahead of myself. I remember always being asked, â€Å"What do you want to be when you grow up? † The funny thing is, I’ve always known. I’ve always wanted to be a teacher. I can look back to my younger years and remember playing teacher, writing out worksheets, teaching classes with my cousins. It’s something I always enjoyed. I am apart of the Coop Education program at my high school, I am now an intern at a preschool. It is just one step closer to what I want to do in my future. I now have hands on experience with young children, being able to interact and add input with any ideas I may have. As you can see, I am a determined young lady; if I want something I am going to try my hardest to be the best I can be in the field I am interested in. Kean University has so much to offer me, especially because I know what I want to do with my life. Kean is a teaching University and elementary education is one of the most popular fields at Kean. Why else would I look any further? I have a plan, people with plans become successful. I am someone who can be a team player when needed be. I was on my schools softball team my sophomore year in high school. I believe that playing a sport, taught me sportsmanship, self-confidence, and being able to work as a unit. You are able to bond with you teammates through the rough long practices and demanding games. I enjoy being involved in school activities. I was apart of Spanish Club and was the secretary of this club in 2007. We had fund raisers, put on a show for the International Festival two years in a row, held at Bloomfield High School, and also provided semi formals ,many accomplishments were made being apart of the Spanish Club. I was also joined Stage Crew my junior year, it gave me insight as to how plays and shows are put together. It’s not an easy job; it is time consuming but a learning experience. Next time I watch a play, I know how much hard work everyone backstage put in, being a part of stage setup and lighting was something new I tried out and did enjoy. I am a determined young woman ready to attain new information in a new ambiance with different people from different walks of life. I am ready to leave my nutshell and burst into a new atmosphere I can say Kean University is where I would like to spend the next four years of my life growing. The campus is big itself, and is unlike any environment I’ve put myself in. I would like to dorm. It’s a time in my life were I can be independent. A year away from my parents and around people I am not familiar with . Life is about experiencing new things. I want to advance, study and experience this all at Kean University

Charles law Essay

Aim: To investigate how the charge on a capacitor is related to the p. d. applied across it by charging the capacitor at a constant rate. Apparatus: o Capacitor (electrolytic type) 500 ? F o Microammeter 100 ? A o Clip component holder o Stop-watch o CRO o Connecting leads Theory: From definition, the capacitor C of a capacitor is found from C = Q/V Where Q is the charge stored on the capacitor and V is the potential difference across it. ==> Q = CV ==>. If a capacitor is charged up at a constant rate, i. e., where I is a constant. Then is also constant. Hence the potential difference across the capacitor increases linearly with time. Procedure 1. The circuit was connected as shown in the figure below. The CRO was set to d. c. and the sensitivity to 1 V/cm. 2. The time base was set to any high value so that a steady horizontal trace is displayed. The trace was shifted to the bottom of the screen. 3. The capacitor was shorted out by connecting a lead across it and adjust the 100 k ? potentiometer for a suitable current, say 80 ? A. 4. Shorting lead was removed and the capacitor will charge up. Note what happens to the microammeter reading and the CRO trace. 5. The procedure was repeated but this time start the stop-watch and continuously adjust the potentiometer to keep the current constant as the capacitor charges up. 6. The times was measured for the CRO trace to move up by 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, etc. These are the times for the p. d. across the capacitor to reach 1V, 2V, 3V, etc. 7. The results was tabulated. Results and discussion. 8 Describe what happens to the microammeter reading and the CRO trace as the capacitor is being charged up. The microammeter reading increase momentarily, then it decrease to zero in a few second. After the capacitor had been completely charged,the CRO trace is a horizontal line, which continuously move up. 9 Tabulate the times for the p. d. across the capacitor to reach 1 V, 2 V, 3 V, etc. as below: P. d. across capacitor Plot a graph of p. d. across the capacitor against time. How is the p. d. related to the time? p. d. is directly proportional to time. 11 Deduce a relationship between the charge on the capacitor and the p. d. across it. From the graph it is found that p. d. is directly proportional to time. Since Q=CV => V=Q/C Therefore if V across the capacitor is directly proportional to t, Q is directly proportional to time as current was constant. Conclusion We can find out that the p. d. across the capacitor is directly proportional to the time needed. Given that the charging current is constant. Sharing. The experiment is much easier than the last one , but we encountered some obstacles in connecting wires , as usual , we messed up positive and negative terminals and couldn’t conduct it smoothly. At last, we had to call for help. Suggestion and there may be some personal error , for example counting the time taken for the capacitor be charged to extent value was rather inaccurate. Perhaps, we could conduct the experiment several times and compute out the average value. Reference list http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Capacitor http://www. elecsound. cn/Ceramic-Capacitor. htm.

Discussion question Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Discussion question - Coursework Example number of body parts pierced either as a declaration of their personal individualism, a recuperation of their bodies from emotional or physical trauma, as a way of sexual fulfilment or stimulation or for as a means of decoration. Art does not help in keeping the practice in balance since people indulge in body piercing for various reasons. This can be affirmed by claim of Rand that the foundations of capitalism tattered by an overflow of self-sacrifice, which is the source of the contemporary worlds decay (Rand, 1967). I believe Karl Max was correct in stating that capitalism is self-destructing. Capitalism has led to competitive capitalism that serves as both an instrument for attaining economic self-determination and a necessary state for political freedom. These are factors linked to the concept of individuality (self-destruction). According to Friedman, it costs funds to discriminate, and it is extremely hard, given the unfriendly nature of market conditions (Friedman 1982). This is a confirmation of Max declaration on

Organization and transformation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Organization and transformation - Essay Example It is evident that the world keeps changing at an extremely rapid rate. It is rare that a single day passes without the news of another discovery or a boundary pushing inventions. Globalisation seems to have dominated much of the corporate and political scenario lately. It has compelled organisations to reallocate resources completely. Major impacts have been more visible in case of the SMEs while the airlines industry has demonstrated significant changes among the large enterprises (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1997, p.286). On the other hand, the dark side of globalisation has given rise to exploitation, terrorism, refugees and the like. The rate with which the changes have been taking place has been outpacing peoples’ abilities to catch up with the change. Organisations people rely on, for meeting their regular needs and wants have been demonstrating rapid and dramatic changes. Such changes are being incorporated in terms of the organisation strat egies, structures, systems, boundaries and also organisational expectations from their managers and staff. The concept of change management gains relevance in the context of an organisational setting. Mangers and leaders must understand the reasons why change takes place, the way changes happen, and the things that are required to be done for making the change more acceptable and welcoming (Cameron & Green, 2004, p.2). The Case Canada’s Bombardier was established in the year 1942 and was initially involved in the making of snowmobiles and various other similar equipments. However, the focus has now shifted towards the manufacturing of airplanes and trains. In fact the company has evolved as the leader in the manufacturer of trains and takes the number three position in the manufacturing of civil aircrafts (Simpson, 2011). Even amidst the economic downturn the company’s stock prices and revenues have remained at a high level. This demonstrates the success the company ha s been able to achieve which has acted as a shield against the external shocks in the economy and helped it to stands high when most other companies were incurring losses. Over the recent past, it has also been able to boost its level of investments which reflects through its designing a completely new airplane, which is called the CSeries. The special benefit that this design provides is that it is characterised by lower emissions and incurs lesser costs in comparison to the remaining airplanes. Pierre Beaudoin, who has been the CEO and President of the company since the year 2008, has attributed resilience of the company significantly towards its present culture. Beaudoin is known for taking the initiative of completely changing the culture of the organisation and making a complete transformation of the way the company operated and functioned in the industry. He had done this being the president of Bombardier Aerospace. The transformation was primarily in the form of changing the company which was driven by engineering and manufacturing goals and also has in depth cultural divisions to that which was

Floating cities vs colonial America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Floating cities vs colonial America - Essay Example Most of these people are also Native Americans. The differences between them include the fact that liberalists are mostly rich citizens who have well-established businesses with no affiliation to the government. They do not work for the government and they want to break away from it. The leaders of the American revolutionary war work for the government through the military. They support the government and are against anyone who opposes it, including the liberalists (David, p. 12). I do not think that the colonial cities offer the same opportunities that colonial America offered citizens of other nations. This is because the founders of these floating cities want to be liberalized and are motivated by breaking as far away from the government as possible. They want to offer their people greater opportunities that the colonial America never offered to its people (Edward, p. 4). The classes of people going to participate in the floating cities are an important factor to the political development of these cities. This is because most of the people sponsoring the development of these cities are the wealthy people such as landowners, businessmen and other high ranking individuals. Therefore, this is the select group of people that can be able to belong to the floating cities. The ordinary poor person cannot afford to have a say in these cities unless they are simply taken there to be passive citizens (Lawrence & Robert, p 105). I think that these floating cities would turn out the same as any other nation politically. According to the theory of social contract by Thomas Hobbes, individuals will only unite into common political societies when they mutually consent to accept duties and abide by common rules. The founders of these floating cities are all motivated by the disgruntlement from the government. According to this theory, a rational individual would easily give up his or her rational freedom voluntarily so as to enjoy the

Evolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Evolution - Essay Example This paper will critically reflect upon adaptation, which is one of the aspects of evolutionary theory. Furthermore, it will discuss whether the aspect can be studied in real time or not and are the microorganisms used within it with a rapid generation time. In the last part of the paper, the concept of antibiotic resistance will be addressed and its links to differences in bacterial genomes. Evolutionary theory is a theory of changes in organic design through contingent selection and controlled random mutations. The evolutionary theory was published by Charles Darwin. Evolution is the binding force of all biological research. The principle of randomness, the genetic principle and the principle of self-replication are some basic principles of evolutionary theory (McGrath, 2005, pp. 227).  Since its inspection, evolutionary theory has been popular among ordinary audience and scientists. The evolutionary theory itself is negated by some of its aspects ,however, some of them are very astonishing. This paper will critically reflect upon adaptation, which is one of the aspects of evolutionary theory. Furthermore, it will discuss whether the aspect can be studied in real time or not and are the microorganisms used within it with a rapid generation time. In the last part of the paper, the concept of antibiotic resistance will be addressed and its links to differences in bacterial genomes. Every aspects of the form and behaviour of organisms are influenced by evolution.  Amongst them, the most prominent are the specific physical and behavioural adaptations that are the outcomes of natural selection (Walsh, 2007, pp. 281). Fitness is increased by these adaptations through aid of activities, like attracting mates, avoiding predators and finding food. The adaptations take place within a population or species. The process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat is referred

Network Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Network Security - Research Paper Example These issues can be dangerous for personal information safety and privacy. Thus, network management procedures are used for the effective management of the network security aspects (Kaminsky, 2012; Cisco, 2000; Huang, MacCallum, & Du, 2010). In addition, network security encompasses a set of rules and actions that an organization or business adopt to secure its computer systems, and it is a major concern for every business that uses a computer network to carry out its business tasks. Hence, compromised network security risk clearly demonstrates that a business competitor or hacker can gain access to sensitive or critical data, probably resulting in total destruction of business or personal information or system or data loss. In this scenario, effective network security can be attained when a user has to face a number of security layers before being capable to get access to the desired business or any information network. Additionally, various researches show that the implementation o f more layers results in more secure network and working environment (Kaminsky, 2012; Cisco, 2000; Huang, MacCallum, & Du, 2010). This paper presents a detailed analysis of network security. This paper will outline some of the major issues regarding internal and external security breaches of a corporate. This paper will also outline the actions and suggestions that should be taken into consideration in order to address these security issues. 2 Main Risks With the passage of time, the trend of adopting new technologies is growing rapidly. Additionally, the computer networks play a significant role in our lives as they are used everywhere. In fact, we regularly use the Internet to carry out our daily tasks. On the other hand, these networks also create various security risks. In addition, network security issues are everywhere whether it is a computer being utilized in a big business/organization or it is a personal computer. In order to ensure network security every computer requires to be protected from the computer network dangers and security fears. Every time we use the new computer system we face some sort of security risks and danger like exposing personal information, credit card theft, identity theft, hacking, data leakage, virus attacks, DoS attacks, and data corruption. In addition, there are also certain other security threats such as various virus attacks and a number of other security problems (Zhang, Xiao, Chen, Zhang, & Deng, 2012; Joshi, 2008; Network Security Threats, 2012). Moreover, in order to determine network security issues a research study was conducted by the event management and security information supplier netForensics, which revealed that more than 80 percent of IT managers anticipate network-borne dangers, which have augmented all through the year 2010 and 2011, and more than 85 percent of IT managers are seeing their corporate network security environment turning out to be more and much harder and complex (Cisco, 2000; Schwartz, 2 010). 3 Internal and External Security Breaches This section outlines some of the major

Discussion Board 4-2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discussion Board 4-2 - Assignment Example She said that she is currently in possession of a gun, but she does not know whether she would actually use it. This calls for confidentiality, which is a basic and long-standing legal and ethical principle that is recognized in all helping professions, and counselors must realize how confidentiality applies in specific counseling situations in order to minimize the likelihood of their being required to divulge confidential client information against their will. Marcie indicates that her mother accompanied her for the appointment and is in the waiting room, but she stresses the importance of keeping the sissu from her mother. Here, respecting diversity, a fundamental factor in protecting client welfare and promoting client dignity must be applied. As such, this delicate situation be handled more in acordance with the ethics orientation that tends to focus on client welfare and protection, than a legal orientation that focuses more on protecting the

Social and Economic Inequality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Social and Economic Inequality - Essay Example People might ask why does this type of inequality exist in the society or what are the reasons behind its existence. Some might say that it is because of the technological advancements whereas some might point towards the rate of unemployment all around the world. Technology has advanced a lot in these past years which has lead to the replacement of man with machines. This in turn has lead to the rise in the number of jobless people in the society. There are people who are willing to work at minimal wages just to earn what little they can (Reich 406). Another problem that can be contributed to the increasing income inequality is the availability of overseas workers who can accomplish tasks with the same level of perfection and yet ask for minimal salary in return. This shift of job placements from developed nations to developing nations also increase the gap between the upper class and the lower class employees who are now forced to work at a pay which is far less than what they actu ally deserve. The government is also considered selfish in this regard because they have attracted all the big booming industries by reducing taxes but little do they realize that these companies will soon be converted into completely automated industries which will require very little man power and hence the number of jobless people will continue to rise in the coming years but the government is more concerned about the productivity and the profit that they gain rather than the amount of unemployment that they will have as a result of this.

ASSIGNMENT Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Assignment Example Users can then withdraw money from their NationHela cards using the readily available mobile phone money transfer schemes. Alternatively, a user can pay for purchases using the loaded NationHela card at outlets that accept debit cards. Using a NationHela debit card is extremely convenient for most people as it eliminates the risks involved in carrying cash. One does not also need to go to the bank for each withdrawal since the system allows users to withdraw money through their mobile phones. NationHela is the best money transfer method, for Kenyan freelancers to use in receiving money from abroad because it is dependable, trustworthy, and versatile. The advert is trying to sell NationHela as dependable way of receiving money from abroad and does so in a manner that psychologically and visually convinces the reader. It employs factors such as symbolism, color, and psychological manipulation. The African people have always visualized the dollar as a symbol of financial freedom and ema ncipation from poverty. Portraying the money in US dollars plays with the reader’s mind such that it gives the impression of added wealth. This way, a reader is convinced that they are going to experience the much needed financial liberation if they use the NationHela card. Therefore, NationHela is a dependable way for freelancers to improve their financial status. Color plays a significant role in conveying messages. The lady in the picture is wearing a pink top, pink necklace, pink earrings, and a blue pair of jeans. In addition, she is carrying a black and white stripped handbag and portrays an image of a successful, well-groomed woman. These features influence the female customers to think that using NationHela will give them success in life. Pink is a symbol of feminism mostly associated with affluence. The use of pink works on the psychology of potential female customers. It convinces them that they will be able to acquire beauty and style with the money received via Na tionHela. A handbag is a lady’s accessory that primarily carries money among other things. The handbag in the advertisement consists of black and white. Black symbolizes wealth and power in Western culture (Symbolism of color. Using color for meaning) whereas white symbolizes simplicity and precision. Therefore, a combination of the two colors on the handbag implies that the woman is carrying power and wealth and that this wealth has been obtained in an effortless and precise manner. A blue NationHela debit card is included at the bottom left corner of the advert. People perceive blue as â€Å"trustworthy, dependable, and committed† (â€Å"Color: Meaning, Symbolism and Psychology†). Thus, the blue debit card together with the symbolism of other colors in the advert give the impression that NationHela is a trustworthy venture for freelancers, making it the best money transfer method. A lucrative commercial also employs the right models to portray the intended mes sage correctly. The advert uses two models, a male and a female. The female model has a pleasantly surprised look on her face, seems extremely happy, and looks back at an outstretched hand holding 500 US dollar notes. It looks as if like she was on her way to a different place before a hand holding cash beckoned her. The other model’s appearance is not fully shown with only the hand appearing in the picture. In spite of this, one can deduce

Classical Period Essay Example for Free

Classical Period Essay Haydn’s Violin Concerto in C (Hob. VIIa/I) was composed sometime around the year 1765, during his fourth year of employment by the Eszterhazy family as assistant to kappelmeister Gregor Werner. Aged thirty-two at the time, he was just then entering into the period during which he would produce his most mature works. Like many concerti of the time – including Haydn’s Cello Concerto, which had immediately preceeded the present work – the Violin Concerto in C was composed to showcase the talents of a specific performer, in this case, Alois Tomosini, who ultimately became concertmaster of the Eszterhazy Orchestra. Like the Cello Concerto, this piece is in three movements: Allegro Moderato, followed by a slower Adagio movement in the subdominant key of F, and finishing with a brilliant, energetic Finale: Presto. Structurally, all three movements follow the sonata allegro form. This form, so common in during the Classical Period that it came to be known as â€Å"First Movement Form† begins in with a primary theme in the tonic key, followed by a secondary theme in the dominant key (or, in the case of minor tonality, the relative major). This makes up the â€Å"exposition. † During the â€Å"development† section, the composer uses thematic materials from the exposition in a series of variations and mutations. The â€Å"recapitulation† restates both initial themes in the tonic key. During the Classical Period, the second movement of any multi-movement work was invariably a slower moving piece in the subdominant key. In the work under discussion, Haydn does not depart from this formula, nor in the last Presto movement in which Classical composers always returned to the original key. It is worth noting that orchestral ensemble works, particularly those of Haydn and Mozart, contained a Minuetto movement inserted between the slower second movement and the faster fourth movement; however, in concerti, which featured a solo player, the Minuetto was never included. It is interesting to note that the Presto movement is in a triple meter, and has the feel, if not the strict form, of a Minuetto. In the performance used for this paper, this movement is played much faster than a typical Minuetto, but a dance-like atmosphere is retained. As this is a fairly early work, it should not surprise us that that Haydn relies a great deal on scale runs and patterns, particularly during transitional sections. In fact, the initial introductory material consists of nothing more than an ascending F major scale, elaborated upon by the accompaniment. This is not as apparent in later, more mature works by this composer, although scale-based material of this nature is prominent in some of Mozart’s youthful works, particularly the first movement of Symphony No. 29 in A Major. There are also several instances in all three movements in which the thematic material goes back and forth between major and parallel (rather than relative) minor tonalities. For modulations, Haydn makes frequent use of â€Å"common-tone diminished† chords, which makes it quite simple to go from one key to any other key. Nonetheless, Haydn rarely strays far from the initial key of a given movement. However, unlike many of Haydn’s later works, diminished seventh harmonic structures are not prominently featured, serving brief functional purposes only. The third, Finale Presto movement has the most interest, despite the frequent use of double stops in the first and the lyrical quality of the second. The fiery leaps and fast runs are obviously intended to display Tomosini’s virtuosity. In addition, there is some interesting rhythmic movement between 3:07 and 3:09 of this recording in which the music nearly changes into duple meter, giving a sensation of hemiola. Much of Haydn’s influences are apparent in the early music of Mozart as well as that of Joseph Bulogne, an French composer of Afro-Caribbean ancestry who commissioned Haydn’s later â€Å"Paris Symphonies. † Haydn enjoyed a long, productive life that spanned nearly the entire stylistic period that came to be known as â€Å"Classical. † At the time Haydn began his compositional career, the Baroque style typified by the works J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel had become dated. The â€Å"Classical† style of which C. P. E. Bach, son of J. S. , was a founder, was still fairly new. The use of the harpsichord continuo – despite the availability of the newly-invented pianoforte – is a noteworthy holdover from the tradition of the baroque concerti grosso. Nonetheless, in its use of scale patterns, parallel minor and the common-tone diminished modulations, this early Haydn work shows a mastery over the basic compositional elements that he would use in many future works. Work Cited Haydn, Franz Josef. Violin Concerto In C Major (Sound Recording). Orchestra Sinfonica Haydn di Bolzano e Trento. Barry Faldner, Conductor. Benjamin Schmid, soloist. (Stradivari Classics, June 1994).

Gender-Based Assumptions of War Victims

Gender-Based Assumptions of War Victims IS THE VIEW OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN MERELY AS VICTIMS OF WAR TOO SIMPLISTIC? International actors faced numerous Humanitarian crises throughout the 1990s, leading to a New War thesis, made particularly prominent by Mary Kaldor. Whilst wars have historically been concerned with violence against the most vulnerable, only recently have studies focused on massive civilian casualties, largely women and children (Kaldor 2013: 133). In mainstream thinking, war remains an exclusively male issue where men are ‘naturally’ those who perpetrate violence; meanwhile, women and children are seen only as victims. Empirical data, however, reported that men as potential fighters are most likely to be targeted in armed conflict, including sexual aggression (Carpenter 2006: 88). Wars create all sorts of victims and perpetrators, spanning gender and roles. Thus, is the role of women and children merely as victims too simplistic? Want This paper examines how common gender-based assumptions and unclear victim-related terms led observers to consider victimization as intrinsic and gender specific. As Cynthia Enloe (2004: 10) stated, ‘naturally’ is a dangerous notion that depicts women as life-giving versus men as life-taking (Coulter, Persson and Utas 2008: 7). However, men, women and childrens roles are much more diverse and complex. Analysis of the Syrian crisis illustrates this argument and provides evidence that men, women and children may be victims, perpetrators, or even both. ‘Women and Children First’. The necessity to have a ‘victim’. Thinking about armed conflict and human security, victims are often at the heart of leaders’ decision-making and civil society’s policies. The search for adequate victims’ and humanitarian programs raised the debate about which side or communities should be acknowledged as victims and revealed the many faces of victimhood (Huyse 2003: 54). Part of the dilemma comes from the political-biased connotations and the legal definition(s) of the term victim. To discuss the former argument, we choose to use the definition provided by the 1985 UN Declaration, which defined a victim as: a person who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States (UN 1985). Women and gender-based violence. Gender-based violence, especially wartime rape, is as old as war itself. For a long time in history, the ‘inferior’ position of women or certain ethnic or racial minorities was considered as natural, following Browmiller’s thesis that ‘War provides men with the perfect psychological backdrop to give vent to their contempt for women’ and became inherent to territorial advance (Brownmiller 1975, 32). During the liberation of Europe in 1945, the Russian Army raped over two million German women (Beevor 2007). However, women had to wait fifty years with the atrocities of Bosnian, Sierra Leone and Rwandan reports on rape camps to finally obtain the ear of the International community. The mediatization of armed groups using the enemy’s women to achieve ethnic cleansing, genocide and occupation goals upon the enemy raised awareness about the use of rape as a weapon (The Economist 2001, Farwell 2004). Pressures by feminist lobbies and academics led to an attempt by the UN to reinforce the protection of women and girls from gender-based violence, recognizing this ‘regrettable aspect of the war’ as a crime against humanity (Farwell 2004: 389, Erturk 2008: 1, DEDAW 1993). Nonetheless, sexual violence is not the only form of conflict-related victimization of women. The over-classification of women as ‘bush wives’, camp followers, and sex slaves undoubtedly raised the world’s awareness on gender-based violence but also diverted policy makers to address and establish efficient policies for all the range of victims (Coulter, Persson and Utas 2008: 8). For example, concerns about the health needs of women in conflict-zones – especially pregnant mothers and their children are annually expressed. In 2009 the Red Cross reported the highest rates of maternal deaths happen in war-torn countries (Puechguirbal 2009). Besides physical sequels, women suffer also from long-term and indirect psychological, social, and economical related-forms of violence. For example, women injured by sexual violence endure physical sufferings but also psychological pressures such as shame when they are back in their communities or economic deprivations and sanctions. Those issues are particularly contentious in cases where women are culturally dependent and subjected to their husbands. (Puechguirbal 2009, Erturk 2008, Tickner 1997: 628). Children as victims The same reasoning occurs with children. UNICEF recently alleged the number of children affected by civil wars has more than doubled over the past years, exceeding more than 5.5 million (UNICEF 2014: 3). However, the numbers do not reflect the form of violence and oppression nor do they specify a time distinction. Children are mainly described as ‘direct victims’ suffering from the direct effects of violence. Nevertheless, more attention should be given to the many other invisible victims, such as those children who lost one or more family members and suffer from the aftereffects of the violence they witnessed (Huyse 2003: 57, Worldvision 2014). Usually defenceless and vulnerable, children are killed, physically abused, kidnapped, recruited as soldiers, and/or displaced. In Syria, more than 1.2 million children have fled their homes, most of them are under 12 (UNICEF 2014: 18). In refugee camps, children are particularly exposed to malnutrition and unsanitary conditions, leading to all kinds of disease. Separated from their family, and/or without support from parents who could barely afford to feed and protect them, children suffer socio-economic deprivation and usually have no access to basic necessities. They are prevented from going to schools and are either enrolled as child labour and/or forced into sexual slavery, – or in the case of young women, married off to older men – to supplement their family’s meagre income (Shivakumaran 2014). In addition to physical abuses, children suffer from long-term psychological traumas from their experiences. In Syrian refugee camps, psychologists noticed unusual level of distress and visible signs social and physical dysfunction among displaced children (Atlas 2014, Winter 2014). Isolated and socially rejected, children who have been traumatized during the conflict develop sequels that can lead to new forms of violence –child soldiers, street gangs, juvenile delinquency or vendetta— (Boyden 2006: 4). In war-torn societies, the observations can generally be extended to second-generation victims; from children who suffered high levels of stress from the adults around them and children born in camps[1], to the grandchildren who carry memories from elder generations (Huyse 2004: 54, 57). Victims of Man’s war For a long time, there was a belief that men fight wars to protect vulnerable people, defend their family’s wealth, and the interests of the nation. This stereotypical role of the ‘active male protector’ naturally defined women and children as ‘passive-protected’ actors. Nevertheless, this common understanding about women and children’s victimization largely diverted the international debate from other under-acknowledged realities (Tickner 1997: 627, Enloe 2012: 7, Rygiel 2006: 150) First, armed groups are not always protecting the weak; second, the assumption that victimization is gender specific overlooks the presence of female fighters among armies (Goldstein 2001: 59). Finally, keeping in mind the fate of children as victims, recent researches indicate empirical evidence about children’s contribution to armed violence, including child soldiering. From victims to active participants Violence committed by children or women has an important symbolic power on people’s minds, because it challenges traditional social constructions that women and children are the most vulnerable (Hunt and Rygiel 2006: 2). Children as weapons Child soldiers have been in use for a long time: regular armies before the Geneva agreements made use of children. As a result of changing societal values and greater awareness of the issue, child soldiering increasingly gained political salience over the last decades of civil wars intensification. Images of tens of thousands small boys with an AK-47 –considered as a ‘cheap’ and ‘disposable goods’ by African War-lords (Rosen 2005)– created terrifying damages worldwide (Erwin 2002, Hoge 2014). However, child soldiers are generally portrayed as direct or indirect victims, forced and pressured by adults to commit brutal atrocities. Numerous testimonies by former child soldiers show the dilemma for those children who killed to defend themselves, either from their captor or an opposing armed faction (BBC 2005). The recent video released by the Islamic State (IS) shows the process of indoctrination and militarization: children carry guns as big as them, and are trained in radical ideology (Vinograd, Balkiz and Omar 2014). Many of those children are around 12-13 and do not actually have a choice, but some of them are already adults. This also leads to the debate around the capacity of youth to exercise a measure of personal autonomy in their decisions and actions (Maclure and Denov 2006: 120). Since 2002, ‘child soldiers’ definition relies the UN straight 18 principle and outlaws all major forms of children involvement in hostilities under that age (OPAC 2007). However, this strict definition tends to obscure the weight of experience, social-context and environment in which youth are evolving (Boyden 2006, Maclure and Denov 2006) Latest psychological analyses demonstrate the necessity to differentiate childhood and adolescence: much of the analysis so far has infantilized the young people as receptors of environmental stimuli, or of adult pressures, often disregarding particular cognitive and behavioural dynamics (Boyden 2006: 1). In some cases, children join for ideological reasons or for other advantages and opportunities war can bring – e.g. money, resources and power to name a few reasons. The prospect of getting a better life is worth war, leading young people to join the rebellion for the same reasons as adults (Hoeffler and Collier 2001, Boyden 2006: 4). Moreover, some scholars tend to explain instability in certain region as a consequence of demographic changes and increasing masses of youth. Post-conflict zones are primarily addressed taking into consideration the limited capacity of war-torn states to handle youthfulness (Maclure and Denov 2006, Boyden 2006: 10). For example, re-recruitment of child soldiers into war is particularly difficult to address (Hoge 2014). In response to evidence of child soldiering by the Kurdish rebel group, the International Criminal Court signed an agreement with the YGP establishing a ‘non-combatant’ category for children between 16 and 18. However and despite Demobilization, Demilitarization and rehabilitation (DDR) programs, dozens of children have tried to re-join local Kurdish military unites on their own (Geneval Call 2014). Women and Men on the moral continuum. From Antigone[2] to the Ozalp[3], women have actively participated in all aspects of war. Historical records show that women perform successfully in war –sometimes even more than their male colleagues. The quasi-exclusion of women as ‘combatants’, refers to the gender constructed discourse and dichotomy between women (peaceful) and men (warlike) which denied the active participation of women as individual perpetrators of violence (Hunt and Rygiel 2006). For example, in 2003, when were released the images of Lynndie England abusing Iraqi prisoner at Abu Ghraib surfaced, the first comments were not related to the atrocities perpetrated on the Iraqi prisoners nor the executors —no one knew, knows, or remembers the names of the other U.S. guards (Brittain 2006: 84). The shock was particularly focused around the picture of the ‘little white woman’ holding a leash tethered to the prisoner’s neck (Struckman 2010, Brittain 2006: 84) Consequently , it has become necessary to critically analyse women’s role as ‘perpetrators and perpetuators’, regarding the estimated number of women engaged today in ‘unwomanly’ behaviour worldwide, including Western armies (Goldstein 2001, Cohen and al. 2013). Fighting for freedom – The case of Kurdish Female fighters The recent growing progress of IS has given particular attention to the fighters for freedom, which fight to prevent the expansion of the Islamic caliphate. In reporting on Kobani attacks by IS, media have begun focusing specifically on the increasing proportion of female fighters who joined the Kurdish movements under the banner of the Women’s Protection Unit (YPJ). Never before has such international concern been given to female combatants and the role they can play in a major combat zone. In the region of Kobani, one in three of the city defenders are female (Pratt 2014, Mezzofiore 2014). From passive ‘protected’ to active ‘protector’, Kurdish female fighters represent a category of women that diverge from the one previously encoded in the society. Besides their abilities to shoot multiple types of weapons, they developed a full range of other skills based on physical and cognitive differences between men and women. For instance, they are mostly marksmen and snipers, as it requires ‘calm, patience and finesse,’ a typically female trait (Pratt 2014). Contrary to the images of vulnerable women, YPJ soldiers almost reveal signs of masculinity by accepting ‘death as a sacrifice that is part of the life choice they have made’ (Pratt 2014). And yet, motivations could be almost identified as feminist ones. IS treat women as objects, giving female fighters even more power against ISIS; some say that Islamic rebels are more terrified of being killed by women because if they do they cannot go to heaven (Mezzofiore 2014) The Kurdish example raises many concerns among scholars since it contrasts the common perception of women’s role. The YPJ’s struggle proves that women can be perfectly capable and willing of performing violent acts to ‘defend the Kurdish people against all evil’ (Pratt 2014). Some suggest that this could lead to the empowerment of women in the region, since female fighters are being taken much more seriously today than in the past (Mezzofiore 2014, Gatehouse 2014). Under fire – All victims? The institution of war has never been good for women and children (Farwell 2004). To a larger extend, war has never been good for anybody. Even if women and children are among the worst victims, they are not the only ones. The held idea that women and children are most likely to be displaced is not always giving justice to the data. Regarding the statistics about Registered Syrian Refugees, Males represent 48.7% and Female 51.3% of exiles. Refugees also include elderly persons, wounded warriors, minorities, people with disabilities, etc (UNRHC 2014). By qualifying women and children only as victims or combatants, scholars conceal the large range of positions they can occupy during a conflict. The mobilization of the society in the war effort has existed as long as war itself. During the First World War, the Munitionettes[4] and their children worked in factories to provide for men at war. They have been enrolled in offices, communications, intelligence, maintenance and many other under-acknowledged ways (Goldstein 2001: 78). Partly victimized, partly victimizing, women are often considered as those who sacrifice the most during war (Huyse 2003: 56) In Africa, women who must fight in armed groups have often been doubly victimized – forced to join the rebellion and raped by enemies and comrades. Consequently, it is impossible to draw a sharp line between the two categories, preventing the implementation of programs to address these women and girls’ actual lived experiences (Coulter and al. 2008 XXX). For example in post-reconstruction policies, they have failed to include women and young girls in DDR programs. Part of it is due to policy-makers’ refusal to recognize woman as combatants (Coulter and al 2008: P). Thus, depending on the policies implemented, women can suffer from deeper discrimination mainly related to the structural roots prevailing in society before the conflict (Cohen and al 2013:5) Porter’s study about rape in Uganda found that rapists are more often husbands/boyfriends or men from the same community rather than enemies (Porter 2013, Utas 2005). Or they can expect better positions with regard to equality between women and men. For example women were generally granted the right to vote after World War Two. Moreover, by emphasizing on the large proportion of women who have been abused, the debate on gender-based violence on men has been overlaid. Barring a few exceptions, the literature does not pay attention to the fact that men are also victims of poor treatment, thereby tortured more violently. Sexual violence is an issue commonly defined as affecting women and young females and yet, male rape, genital mutilation and other forms of emasculation have an important impact on men that should be documented (Cohen and al 2013: 7, Sivakumaran 2013). Aggressors often abuse male enemies or political prisoners intentionally dehumanize and humiliate them (Sivakumaran 2013, Carpenter 2006). Nevertheless, because of the psychological and social implications of male victimization, less attention is given to male adults and adolescents who have been oppressed and/or forced to commit crimes (rape, mass killings, kidnapping), leading to a bias in human security studies (Carpenter 2006). From ‘Women and Children’ to ‘Women’ and ‘Children’ Gender-based common assumptions have largely shaped the way people perceive men, women and children’s roles in war. The persistent idea of a masculine monopoly on force promotes a simplistic view of war as the continuation of politics, where men are the main actors (Enloe 2004). By categorizing men as life-taking, women as live-giving and children as the next generation, it appears that scholars have misjudged the role of women and children, especially during wars. After the mediatisation of the Bosnia Civil War and the Genocide in Rwanda, policy-makers and NGOs mainly focused on those visible atrocities that reduce the role of women and children to mere victimhood. The proportion of women and children suffering from conflicts is substantial. However, the amalgamation of ‘Women and Children’ under a unique category because of their relative ‘vulnerability’, diverted attention away from existing structural realities. Following this myth, scholarâ€℠¢s researches have exacerbated the idea of ‘tough men’ dying to protect ‘tender women and children’ and failed to question if women and children are merely victims of war. 1 [1] The huge number of child refugees is not only driven by the recent Syrian conflict but also by the growing number of Syrian, Afghan and Somali children that were born in refugee camps. (UNHCR 2014) [2] Antigone†¦ (Anouillh [3] With a lack of ammunition and in a hopeless situation, Ozalp killed herself not to fall into the hands of the rapists (Mezzofiore 2014) [4] Women working in munitions factories during WWI.

Design Of A PV-Diesel Hybrid System

Design Of A PV-Diesel Hybrid System Design Of A PV-Diesel Hybrid System And Its Comparison With Grid Connected System In Pakistan 1. Project Background And Introduction Introduction The project with respect to this thesis is to design a PV Diesel hybrid system and to compare it with already existed grid connected system. This system is designed for a Jamia Masjid (Islamic center) in Pakpattan, Pakistan. The exact site of the project is a colony of Pakpattan which is in the south-west of the city Pakpattan. The Pakpattan city is situated around 161 Km south west to Lahore. The climate and weather data is almost same for Lahore and Pakpattan. Furthermore it will be first project of its own nature in this area and it will help to design the systems for the residential areas by which a common person can get benefits and get rid of power failures. Pakistan is located between latitude 24 and 37 degrees North and longitude 62 and 75 degrees East. Pakistan has Afghanistan in the north-west, Iran on west boarder, India is on the east, China in the north and the Arabian Sea is on the south. Pakistan is ageographical centre of the Asian Continent because it builds a type of bridge between Far East and Middle East; also it has a continental type of climate which can be characterized by extreme variations of temperature. Generally the climate of Pakistan is arid, means very high temperature in summer and low temperatures in winter. High altitudes change the climate in the freezing northern mountains which are covered with snow. There is little rainfall. There are some differences exist distinctly in various locations, e.g. the coastal line along Arabian Sea is usually under warm conditions, whereas the Karakoram mountain range and some other mountains of far north are so cold, completely frozen and covered with snow that these are only visible and accessible by some international world-class climbers for a couple of months of May and June of each year. The variation of daily temperature could be 11 0C to 17 0C but in winters the minimum mean temperature is about 4 0C in January. Pakistan has tremendous recourses of energy but unfortunately due to mismanagement out of 170 million population just 65-70% has access to electricity. Demand is more than supply of energy to residential and industrial sector. Currently Pakistan is facing 3000 MW of power storage and it is expected that in year 2010 the demand will exceed supply by 5500 MW. The current power and electricity demand and supply gap shows that there is a big need to increases the current power generation capacity in Pakistan. Aim Of The Thesis The main aim of the project is to explain the design phase of a single home PV system. The procedures and details of the design are presented with step by step. There are main following aims which are supposed to be fulfilled by this thesis. a) To go through and grab the core knowledge of the designing process. b) To get familiar with different tools used for designing and make selection between them. c) Beyond from bookish knowledge, get to know some real and practical aspects of different PV systems and projects. The body and structure of the thesis is mainly divided into four phases. a) Calculation of the primary load for this specific project with the help of PVSYST version 4 b) Division of the load to PV and Diesel Generator according to boundary conditions and design parameters. c) Economical and technical look on already existed grid connected system. d) Comparative study between this newly design system and already existed grid connected system in terms of economics, availability and life time World Energy Situation There are different factors which effect and play an important role in the consumption, demand and availability of energy, for example the consumption by individual user and business is being increased, everyday growing population and new government policies are some of these factors. But the fossil fuels are exhaustible. There are two aspects of the fossil fuels, 1st is their availability and 2nd is those harmful environmental impacts which appear after using and burning of these fossil fuels. It is equally harmful for the present generations as well as for future generations. But with the passage of time more and more people and governments are getting awareness about these impacts. The current energy demand projections can be seen from the facts and figures provided by World Energy Administration (EIA) â€Å"The total world energy consumption increases from 472 quadrillion Btu in 2006 to 552 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and 678 quadrillion Btu in 2030—a total increase of 44 percent over the projection period† Renewable Energy Situation Of The World When the first Renewable Global Status Report was published in 2004, many indicators have shown dramatic gains. In the last four years from the end of 2004 to the end of 2008, solar photovoltaic capacity increased six times which is more than 16 gigawatts (GW). Wind power capacity has been increased 250 percent to 121 GW; the total power capacity from new renewable recourses has been increased 75 percent to 280 GW which includes significant gains in small geothermal, hydro, and biomass power generation. During the same period of time, solar heating capacity become double to 145 gigawatts-thermal, while the biodiesel production has been also increased six times to 12 billion liters per year and ethanol production doubled to 67 billion liters per year. The annual percentage gain for the year 2008 was also very amazing and more dramatic. The growth in Wind energy was 29% and grid connected solar PV by 70%. The capacity of utility scale PV plants also increased during this period. Solar hot water systems also grew by 15%. All around the world the governments are changing the policies about the future energy crises and energy markets and policy. In this race the United States of America became the leader and invested $24 billion for new capacity which is 20% of the total global investment. The United States is also leading in adding the total wind energy capacity and also surpassed Germany who was a wind power leader for a long time. Spain has added around 2.6 GW of solar PV, which is a full half of grid connected installations all around the global and five times increase over Spains 2007 additions. China has doubled its capacity to produce wind energy and now ranked at fourth place all around the world. Another significant and important milestone was that the European Union and the USA added more capacity to produce power from renewable recourses than from conventional energy sources (as gas, oil, coal and nuclear) and it happened for the first time. The industries of Renewable energy boomed mostly during 2008. Global solar PV production was increased by 90% to 6.9 GW in 2008. Energy Profile Of Pakistan The energy profile of Pakistan is inadequate and there are always short falls of energy (electricity) especially during summer. Pakistan needs around 14,000 to 15,000 MW electricity everyday to meet all residential and industrial demands. But Pakistan can produce around 11,500 MW, so it means there is around 3000 MW to 4000 MW short fall. This shortfall was experienced extensively and on its peak this year and affecting industry, commerce and daily life. During this year the shortfall for electricity in rural areas was around 12 to 16 hours and in urban areas it was about 8 to 12 hours. The reasons for this deficiency are limited fossil fuel resources, weak economy and mismanagement of the available energy sources. There are some commercial sources of energy available in Pakistan, they are: Hydro energy; Nuclear energy; Oil and gas; Conventional fuels like agricultural wastes, animal dung and wood fuel. Here, it is an overview of primary energy supplies in Pakistan in MTOE (TOE: ton of oil equivalent. It is an energy unit which is equal to the energy of burning of 1 ton of crude oil which is about 42 GJ) From fig 1.3 it is clear that energy supply of Pakistan is highly dependent on Oil and Gas. Both Oil and Gas contribute more than 79% of total primary energy supplied. The other sources of energy like hydro- electricity, coal, nuclear electricity and imported electricity contribute about 21% of the total share. As energy is essential for all types of production processes. Pakistan has been growing in agricultural and industrial sector during last decade and thats why energy demand is being increased. As population and industry is growing, the daily demand will increase up to 20,000 MW in 2010. Pakistan meets around 75% of its energy needs by oil, gas and hydro electricity production. Natural gas has played an important role to meet the energy needs in recent years. But Pakistan needs to expand its energy resource on permanent bases. In order to overcome this energy shortage, Pakistan needs to expand and develop its indigenous energy resources such as hydropower, wind and solar energy. Pakistan is one of the highest solar insulation areas of the world. Now we will briefly discuss the main energy sources in Pakistan. Natural Gas After the independence of Pakistan in 1952 Sui natural gas field resources in Baluchistan were discovered first time. The production at Sui started in 1955 and was on its peak in 1985. It was the most productive gas field of Pakistan in early 1990s. In FY 1993 it was accounting 46% of production. After that the second largest gas field was discovered which is also located in Baluchistan at Mari, which was contributing 20% of all production. Total 25 gas fields were fully operational in FY 1993. The estimation of recoverable natural gas reserves were estimated around 662.0 billion cubic meters, with an extraction rate around 14.0 billion cubic meters. In order to meet the increasing demand of energy and for future planning, efforts from government are being made to increase the production of gas in the country. To do this exploration activities are the first step. The estimation of recoverable reserves of natural gas was 29.671 trillion cubic feet in January 2009. During July-March 2008-2009 the average production of natural gas was 3986.5 mmcfd (million cubic feet per day) but during the corresponding period of last year it was around 3965.9 mmcfd which shows an increase of around 0.52%. At the moment 26 public and private sector companies are engaged in exploration and production activities of oil and gas in Pakistan. LPG The contribution of LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is about 0.7% to the total energy supply of Pakistan. LPG is being supplied to many remote areas where the supply of natural gas is not technically suitable. To do this government has changed policies for energy supply and management and as a result of this modification the supply of LPG in 2007-2008 was 601,592 Metric Ton and in last few years the annual cumulative growth rate was 18.2%.years. Around 32,621 MT of LPG was imported during July-March, 2009. CNG The main reason of encouragement of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) use is to improve environment and to decrease the dependency on other fuels. The price difference between petrol and CNG is about 60.0 percent, thats why vehicles are being converted to CNG day by day and around 2.0 Million vehicles are using CNG. The numbers of CNG stations are also increasing day by day and there are around 2,700 established CNG stations in Pakistan which covers an investment of Rs.70 billion. At present Pakistan is the largest CNG user country. Oil The estimation of recoverable reserves of crude oil in total in Pakistan were around 313 million barrels in January 2009. The average production of crude oil during July-March 2008-09 was 66532 barrels per day. The average production of crude oil during last year was 70166 barrels per day which shows a negative growth of 5.2 percent. The average production of oil in Pakistan remained 67,438 BOPD in 2006-2007. Oil and gas development company and limited (OGDCL) was the biggest oil producing company in Pakistan with a production of around 13.261 million barrels which contribute around 54% of the total oil production per year of Pakistan with an average rate of 36,332 BOPD. After that British Petroleum (BP) is the second largest oil producing company with total contribution of 16% of total oil production in Pakistan. BP produces around 4.025 million barrels averagely with 11,029 BOPD. Pakistan oil fields limited (POL) produced around 3.231 million barrels. There are other small oil production companies as well in Pakistan. Coal The total estimation of coal recourses of Pakistan is more than 185 billion tones. Thar coalfield (Sindh province) is the biggest coal source which worth more than 175 billion tones. Pakistans coal is generally ranked from lignite to sub bituminous. The production of coal was decreased in during July-March 2008-09 by 28.8%. About 60.4% of the total coal production is being consumed by the brick kilns industry. Cement industry is also using a large fraction of coal which is around 37.4% and almost all cement industry is being switched on coal from furnace oil. As energy demand is increasing day by day and government is reshaping the energy policies. Due to high prices of imported energy government of Pakistan has decided to increase the share of coal from 05 to 19% in the overall energy mix up to 2030. In view of expected shortfall of energy resources and electricity during the next 10 years the maximum utilization of coal would be needed for power generation and gasification. Accordi ng to government energy security plan, a target has been set which is to generate about 20,000 MW power from coal by 2030 and 50% by 2050. Nuclear Energy: Pakistan is the 7th nuclear power of the world. In 2009, the nuclear power plants contribute up to 2.4% share to the total electricity production in Pakistan. Pakistan has two working nuclear reactors which produce about 425 MW power for the generation of electricity. The third nuclear reactor will be operational in spring of 2010. In Pakistan nuclear power contributes very small to the electricity production. The total generating capacity is around 20 GWe while in 2006; 98 billion kWh gross was generated. First nuclear power reactor was started in 1971 in KANUPP near Karachi and it has small capacity of 125 MWe and it is pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR). The second unit was started in May 2000 and is known as Chashma-1 in Punjab. It has capacity of 325 MWe. It is pressurized water reactor (PWR) and was supplied by Chinas CNNC under safeguards. It is also known as CHASNUPP-1. In December 2005 construction of its twin Chashma-2 was started. It is reported that it cost PKR 51.46 billion (US$ 860 million, $350 million were financed by China). But these sources are not sufficient to overcome this energy crises and Pakistan needs to develop renewable energy sources. Renewable Energy Sources In Pakistan Pakistan is situated in such a special geographic location that it is blessed with abundant and inexhaustible Renewable Energy (RE) resources. These resources can play an effective and considerable role for the contribution towards energy security of Pakistan. When we look into current world energy scenario in general and energy scenario of Pakistan in particular, the development and adoption of RE technologies makes better sense. Government policies and objectives to develop RE technology are also matching with this sense so that the share of RE in overall energy mix should be at least 5% by the year 2030. Wind potential: 0. 346 Million MW Solar potential: 2.9 Million MW Mini Small Hydel: 2,000 MW [9] There is a significant potential of wind energy in Pakistan especially in the coastal belt of Baluchistan and Sindh, and also in the desert areas of Punjab and Sindh. However this renewable energy source has not been utilized. AEDB collected the wind data of all Pakistan from Pakistan Metrological Department and was analyzed. On the basis of this collected data and analysis, it was stated that the coastal belt of Pakistan has a God gifted 60 km wide (Gharo-Keti Bandar) and 180 km long (up to Hyderabad) wind corridor. This wind corridor has the potential to generate 50,000 MW of electricity. AEDB has done other different surveys in Gharo and Jhimpir regions and some coastal area of Baluchistan. After these surveys it is concluded that in the south region most of the remote villages can be easily electrified through micro wind turbines. Furthermore it is estimated that in Baluchistan Sindh and Northern areas more than 5000 villages can be electrified through wind energy. Sincere efforts and aggressive lobbying has been done by AEDB with national and international investors to invest and to make them realize the tremendous potentials of RE. AEBD is in negotiations with international companies to set up their business in Pakistan. However large wind mills have not been installed yet but 30 wind mills for water pumping have been installed on experimental basis in different parts of Baluchistan and Sindh. In southern coastal areas of Pakistan remote villages are currently electrified with energy and so far more than 17 villages have been electrified using micro wind turbines. Around 95% of total electricity generation is from hydropower in Pakistan. But during summer in hottest and driest months of the year it becomes less productive and cannot meet the energy demands. Also, around 70% of the population lives in 50,000 villages. Many of these villages are very far from the main transmission lines and also it is not economically viable to connect these small villages to the main grid due to their small population. On the other hand solar energy has excellent and significant potential. Pakistan is one of those countries which receive solar radiations at high level throughout the year. Every day it receives an average of about 19 MJ/m2 of solar energy. Studies have been already done and solar systems have been developed and tested. There is a list of different projects which are completed by Pakistan council of Renewable energy technology. Potential Of PV In Pakistan The location of Pakistan is very ideal to take advantage of solar energy as a source of energy because Pakistan is in the Sun Belt region. Solar energy is available abundantly and widely distributed all around the country. Following figure shows solar insolation map for Pakistan. The map shows around 200-250 W/m2 per day. The Baluchistan province is very rich in solar energy. It receives around 19-20 MJ/m2 per day averagely which is equal to 1.93-2.03 MWh/ m2 per day with annual 8-8.5 mean annual sunshine hours. These conditions are ideal for PV and solar energy applications. Solar energy is very good option for off-grid villages. There are around 75,000 off-grid villages which contains 4 million homes and every home accommodates around 4-5 people. These off-grid villages are situated in the Baluchistan and Frontier Province. AEDB has set a target to electrify a thousand villages via solar technology by the year 2010. In this respect the first contract has been given to the Sehgal electronics group (Pakistan). Each home which is electrified with PV will have around 400 W power supply and lead acid batteries for overnight storage. There are also other plans to have local production using PV modules with and estimation of this production is around 3MW/year. Possible Routes For Solar PV In Pakistan The global demand of PV equipment is increasing day by day and due to this fact the prices for PV systems, equipment and electricity has gone down remarkably. PV could be exploited in Pakistan through following two routes. Off-grid Or Stand-Alone Sector Stand-alone systems generate electricity independently of the utility grid. Stand alone systems can be a very good option for the remote areas and very deep located villages, where the extension of power transmission lines would be more costly. Also it could be implemented in environmentally sensitive areas as parks, remote homes and cabins. In rural areas, it could be used for solar water pumps and farm lighting. [12] Grid-Connected Sector Grid-connected PV systems supply extra power when the home systems power supply is not sufficient to fulfill the load. These systems remove the need of battery bank. In some situation, utilities allow net metering, by which the owner can sell extra power back to the utility. Current Solar Energy Applications In Pakistan Both PV and solar thermal have a wide range of applications in Pakistan. Although the scale of utilization and adoption has been very small but it has been utilized for last 25 years in Pakistan. Different applications mainly PV and solar thermal applications are summarized as. Photovoltaics Eighteen PV stations were built by the government in the early 1980s to electrify different villages the country. The installed capacity was nearly 440 kW but due to the lack of technical knowledge and follow up, these systems could not perform as required. Currently in Pakistan solar energy is being used for telephone exchanges stand alone rural electrification, cathodic protection, highway emergency telephones and vaccine refrigeration in hospitals. In different parts of Baluchistan, about 20 solar water pumps have been installed for drinking purposes by The Public Health Department. The northern and western area of Pakistan are mostly hilly and mountain areas (Hindu Kush-Himalayas, HKH region), which are blessed with a lot of sunshine with 4-6 kWh/m2 daily average solar radiation. Seven solar stations were installed in this region in the late 1980s for lighting by different companies. The total capacity of these systems was 234 kW. They are not in operation now due maintenance pro blems. SIEMENS Pakistan has installed many stand alone solar systems in Pakistan. On the Lahore-Islamabad Motorway, it has installed power supply systems for many microwave-link repeater stations and more than 350 emergency call boxes. Solar Thermal Applications There are many applications which utilize solar energy directly by utilizing its heat characteristics. Such applications are much simple, low cost and easy to adopt. The applications include heating and cooling of homes and buildings, cooking, water heating for domestic and industrial use and drying agricultural products. A brief description of such applications in Pakistan is given here. Solar Water Heaters This technology is quite mature in Pakistan but very limited because of its higher capital cost as compared to conventional water heaters which operate on natural gas. But in last couple of years it has started to gain popularity because a number of public sector organizations are working to develop low cost solar water heaters. The prices of natural gas and electricity are increasing day by day, so people are adopting solar water heaters and also private sector has already started the production of such heaters. Solar Cooker Different public sector organizations have been working to develop low cost and efficient design solar cookers. In HKH region of Pakistan, more than 2000 solar cookers are in use. This number is very small. It needs to be more popularized. Pakistan needs to reduce the use of precious forest resources as fuel wood and to replace it with solar cookers. Solar Dryers Solar energy can be very good option for drying agriculture products. By this, we can get very good quality products at much less cost. Northern mountainous areas like Gilgit and Sakardu are very rich in fruit production like apricots which used to be wasted by tons every year. But now solar dryers are being used to dry large quantities of fruit, which is leaving a positive effect on the economy of this area. Different NGOs are working for the popularizing and the use of such dryers. Solar Desalination Drinkable water is unavailable in many parts of Sindh, Baluchistan and southern Punjab and it is very critical issue. Underground water is available but it is highly saline. This saline water is not fit for drinking at all and causes many dangerous diseases such as hypertension. Solar energy can be utilized to convert this available saline water into drinkable water. Solar desalination is very simple, low cost and easy to use. Also it is very easy to adopt. A successful solar desalination project is in operation and it is working very fine and helping to change the life style of the population of Gawader in the Baluchistan province. It consists of 240 stills and each can clean 6000 gallons of seawater per day. 2. Basics And Components Of A PV System Basics Of A PV System Photovoltaic is the technology which converts solar energy directly into electricity and this process is carried out though solar cells. Solar cell is a device which converts sun energy into electricity. We can say solar cell as photovoltaic cell as well but solar cell term will be used when the source of light is defined as â€Å"sun† but if it is not defined than we can say it as photovoltaic cell. Now days when entire world is looking for a neat and clean environment and want to meet huge energy requirements without disturbing and populating the environment, sustainable energy sources seems to play their important role. Researchers and scientists from all around the world are looking for these types of renewable sources. They are trying to get the energy needs from these renewable energy sources. The main advantages of using renewable energy sources are 1. Neat and clean environment 2. Yield of energy is higher 3. Safer for electricity production as compared to convention methods (low voltage) 4. Long life times 5. Low maintenance cost 6. Use of natural sources which are being wasted with time. These are the reason, why people prefer renewable energy sources. There are different types of renewable energy sources as 1. Solar energy 2. Wind energy 3. Tidal energy 4. Geothermal energy 5. Wave power 6. Hydropower 7. Bio energy We will discuss solar energy in detail and its related topics in this report. There are different units in a PV system and all these units combine to make a full working PV system. These are PV System Components 1. PV Panels 2. Trackers and tracking system 3. Array DC Disconnect 4. Blocking diodes 5. Charge Controller 6. Battery Bank 7. System Meter 8. Main DC Disconnect 9. Inverter 10. Kilowatt-Hour Meter 11. Backup Generator PV Panels PV panels are the defining components of a PV system, which uses sunlight to make direct current (DC) electricity. Wafers of semiconductor material are used for this purpose. They use light (photons) to produce electricity (photovoltaic effect). When the electricity is generated than it powers our electric loads such as lights, computers, and refrigerators. PV panels differ from each other on the basis of power rating in watts which is based on their maximum power generation capacity. Solar cell is the fundamental and basic building block in a PV system which acts as power conversion unit of this system. There are different types of solar cells now days available having different power about 1 or 2 watts. Usually solar cells are made of single crystal silicon and they are limited to about 25% efficiency. The reason is that they are most sensitive to IRL (infrared light), and the radiations in this region of electromagnetic spectrum are relatively low in energy. Another type of solar cells is Polycrystalline solar cells. They are made by a special casting process. In this process molten silicon is being poured into a mould, allowed to cool down and then it is sliced into wafers. By this process we can make relatively cheaper cells as compared to single crystal cells, but their efficiency is less than 20%. The reason is that there is internal resistance on the boundaries of silicon crystals which affects the efficiency. The third type of solar cells is amorphous cells and they are made by a special process in which silicon is deposited onto a glass substrate from a reactive gas such as silane (SiH4). These types of solar cells are used in solar powered watches and calculators, but now days bigger modules are also manufactured. They are also rather cheap and their efficiency is only up to 10%. The reason is, since amorphous silicon cell has no crystal structure and there are much internal energy losses. Solar cells are not just restricted to semiconductor materials; solar cells are available now days which convert sun light into electricity by organic molecules. Their efficiency is up to 10%. Apart from various types of silicon, other materials can also be used to make solar cells like cadmium telluride and gallium arsenide. There are different types of cell packings. The most common are raw cells, and they are often with cover sheet. Now we have discussed solar cells. These solar are combined together to make a module to get boosted power for practical purposes. Than these modules are combined together to make a panel, these panels are joined together to form a big array. Trackers And Tracking System Solar tracker is a device on which solar panels are fitted and the motion of the sun is tracked through this device. It ensures that the maximum amount of sunlight will strike to the panel throughout the whole day. Actually it is a mounting rack which follows the sun constantly. By using trackers, we can utilize maximum sunlight and thus can produce more electricity. In the morning time, it is low on eastern horizon while at the sunset it is low at western horizon. But at noon the position of sun is very high in the sky. This motion is due to the rotation of earth. Trackers keep PV modules perpendicular to incoming sun radiations and maximize the energy production. The increment in the energy production using trackers depends on the site and the type of tracker. Usually energy production increases 25 to 40% annually, which is shown in more detail in the following figure. To get maximum efficiency tracker must be placed in a suitable location. A good tracker site is that on which sun can be seen very early in the morning time and receive sunlight until sunset. There should be no solar obstructions like trees and buildings on the site or near the site in order to work perfectly. Before considering the tracker into system design, an evaluation of the site is done using Solar Pathfinder. Trackers are usually mounted on ground and use a heavy steel pole which is sunk into a concrete foundation. There are some systems where the trackers are mounted on the roofs, but it can create structural problems. There are two basic types of trackers. 1. Electrically operated 2. Thermally operated Thermally Operated Trackers These trackers are based on mass transfer from one side to the other side of the tracker to track the sun. This transfer of mass causes the tracker to turn from east to west by following the sun. Actually two tubes filled with Freon (which vaporizes and become gas) are mounted on east and west sides of the tracker. With the sunlight, the temperature of Freon becomes higher on one side of tracker, it starts to become vapors. These vapors take more space than as compared to the liquid Freon, which pushes Freon (liquid) to the other side. This transfer of mass from the one side to the other side of the tracker causes the change in the balance of tracker which eventually rotates it to the west. Usually they are slow Design Of A PV-Diesel Hybrid System Design Of A PV-Diesel Hybrid System Design Of A PV-Diesel Hybrid System And Its Comparison With Grid Connected System In Pakistan 1. Project Background And Introduction Introduction The project with respect to this thesis is to design a PV Diesel hybrid system and to compare it with already existed grid connected system. This system is designed for a Jamia Masjid (Islamic center) in Pakpattan, Pakistan. The exact site of the project is a colony of Pakpattan which is in the south-west of the city Pakpattan. The Pakpattan city is situated around 161 Km south west to Lahore. The climate and weather data is almost same for Lahore and Pakpattan. Furthermore it will be first project of its own nature in this area and it will help to design the systems for the residential areas by which a common person can get benefits and get rid of power failures. Pakistan is located between latitude 24 and 37 degrees North and longitude 62 and 75 degrees East. Pakistan has Afghanistan in the north-west, Iran on west boarder, India is on the east, China in the north and the Arabian Sea is on the south. Pakistan is ageographical centre of the Asian Continent because it builds a type of bridge between Far East and Middle East; also it has a continental type of climate which can be characterized by extreme variations of temperature. Generally the climate of Pakistan is arid, means very high temperature in summer and low temperatures in winter. High altitudes change the climate in the freezing northern mountains which are covered with snow. There is little rainfall. There are some differences exist distinctly in various locations, e.g. the coastal line along Arabian Sea is usually under warm conditions, whereas the Karakoram mountain range and some other mountains of far north are so cold, completely frozen and covered with snow that these are only visible and accessible by some international world-class climbers for a couple of months of May and June of each year. The variation of daily temperature could be 11 0C to 17 0C but in winters the minimum mean temperature is about 4 0C in January. Pakistan has tremendous recourses of energy but unfortunately due to mismanagement out of 170 million population just 65-70% has access to electricity. Demand is more than supply of energy to residential and industrial sector. Currently Pakistan is facing 3000 MW of power storage and it is expected that in year 2010 the demand will exceed supply by 5500 MW. The current power and electricity demand and supply gap shows that there is a big need to increases the current power generation capacity in Pakistan. Aim Of The Thesis The main aim of the project is to explain the design phase of a single home PV system. The procedures and details of the design are presented with step by step. There are main following aims which are supposed to be fulfilled by this thesis. a) To go through and grab the core knowledge of the designing process. b) To get familiar with different tools used for designing and make selection between them. c) Beyond from bookish knowledge, get to know some real and practical aspects of different PV systems and projects. The body and structure of the thesis is mainly divided into four phases. a) Calculation of the primary load for this specific project with the help of PVSYST version 4 b) Division of the load to PV and Diesel Generator according to boundary conditions and design parameters. c) Economical and technical look on already existed grid connected system. d) Comparative study between this newly design system and already existed grid connected system in terms of economics, availability and life time World Energy Situation There are different factors which effect and play an important role in the consumption, demand and availability of energy, for example the consumption by individual user and business is being increased, everyday growing population and new government policies are some of these factors. But the fossil fuels are exhaustible. There are two aspects of the fossil fuels, 1st is their availability and 2nd is those harmful environmental impacts which appear after using and burning of these fossil fuels. It is equally harmful for the present generations as well as for future generations. But with the passage of time more and more people and governments are getting awareness about these impacts. The current energy demand projections can be seen from the facts and figures provided by World Energy Administration (EIA) â€Å"The total world energy consumption increases from 472 quadrillion Btu in 2006 to 552 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and 678 quadrillion Btu in 2030—a total increase of 44 percent over the projection period† Renewable Energy Situation Of The World When the first Renewable Global Status Report was published in 2004, many indicators have shown dramatic gains. In the last four years from the end of 2004 to the end of 2008, solar photovoltaic capacity increased six times which is more than 16 gigawatts (GW). Wind power capacity has been increased 250 percent to 121 GW; the total power capacity from new renewable recourses has been increased 75 percent to 280 GW which includes significant gains in small geothermal, hydro, and biomass power generation. During the same period of time, solar heating capacity become double to 145 gigawatts-thermal, while the biodiesel production has been also increased six times to 12 billion liters per year and ethanol production doubled to 67 billion liters per year. The annual percentage gain for the year 2008 was also very amazing and more dramatic. The growth in Wind energy was 29% and grid connected solar PV by 70%. The capacity of utility scale PV plants also increased during this period. Solar hot water systems also grew by 15%. All around the world the governments are changing the policies about the future energy crises and energy markets and policy. In this race the United States of America became the leader and invested $24 billion for new capacity which is 20% of the total global investment. The United States is also leading in adding the total wind energy capacity and also surpassed Germany who was a wind power leader for a long time. Spain has added around 2.6 GW of solar PV, which is a full half of grid connected installations all around the global and five times increase over Spains 2007 additions. China has doubled its capacity to produce wind energy and now ranked at fourth place all around the world. Another significant and important milestone was that the European Union and the USA added more capacity to produce power from renewable recourses than from conventional energy sources (as gas, oil, coal and nuclear) and it happened for the first time. The industries of Renewable energy boomed mostly during 2008. Global solar PV production was increased by 90% to 6.9 GW in 2008. Energy Profile Of Pakistan The energy profile of Pakistan is inadequate and there are always short falls of energy (electricity) especially during summer. Pakistan needs around 14,000 to 15,000 MW electricity everyday to meet all residential and industrial demands. But Pakistan can produce around 11,500 MW, so it means there is around 3000 MW to 4000 MW short fall. This shortfall was experienced extensively and on its peak this year and affecting industry, commerce and daily life. During this year the shortfall for electricity in rural areas was around 12 to 16 hours and in urban areas it was about 8 to 12 hours. The reasons for this deficiency are limited fossil fuel resources, weak economy and mismanagement of the available energy sources. There are some commercial sources of energy available in Pakistan, they are: Hydro energy; Nuclear energy; Oil and gas; Conventional fuels like agricultural wastes, animal dung and wood fuel. Here, it is an overview of primary energy supplies in Pakistan in MTOE (TOE: ton of oil equivalent. It is an energy unit which is equal to the energy of burning of 1 ton of crude oil which is about 42 GJ) From fig 1.3 it is clear that energy supply of Pakistan is highly dependent on Oil and Gas. Both Oil and Gas contribute more than 79% of total primary energy supplied. The other sources of energy like hydro- electricity, coal, nuclear electricity and imported electricity contribute about 21% of the total share. As energy is essential for all types of production processes. Pakistan has been growing in agricultural and industrial sector during last decade and thats why energy demand is being increased. As population and industry is growing, the daily demand will increase up to 20,000 MW in 2010. Pakistan meets around 75% of its energy needs by oil, gas and hydro electricity production. Natural gas has played an important role to meet the energy needs in recent years. But Pakistan needs to expand its energy resource on permanent bases. In order to overcome this energy shortage, Pakistan needs to expand and develop its indigenous energy resources such as hydropower, wind and solar energy. Pakistan is one of the highest solar insulation areas of the world. Now we will briefly discuss the main energy sources in Pakistan. Natural Gas After the independence of Pakistan in 1952 Sui natural gas field resources in Baluchistan were discovered first time. The production at Sui started in 1955 and was on its peak in 1985. It was the most productive gas field of Pakistan in early 1990s. In FY 1993 it was accounting 46% of production. After that the second largest gas field was discovered which is also located in Baluchistan at Mari, which was contributing 20% of all production. Total 25 gas fields were fully operational in FY 1993. The estimation of recoverable natural gas reserves were estimated around 662.0 billion cubic meters, with an extraction rate around 14.0 billion cubic meters. In order to meet the increasing demand of energy and for future planning, efforts from government are being made to increase the production of gas in the country. To do this exploration activities are the first step. The estimation of recoverable reserves of natural gas was 29.671 trillion cubic feet in January 2009. During July-March 2008-2009 the average production of natural gas was 3986.5 mmcfd (million cubic feet per day) but during the corresponding period of last year it was around 3965.9 mmcfd which shows an increase of around 0.52%. At the moment 26 public and private sector companies are engaged in exploration and production activities of oil and gas in Pakistan. LPG The contribution of LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is about 0.7% to the total energy supply of Pakistan. LPG is being supplied to many remote areas where the supply of natural gas is not technically suitable. To do this government has changed policies for energy supply and management and as a result of this modification the supply of LPG in 2007-2008 was 601,592 Metric Ton and in last few years the annual cumulative growth rate was 18.2%.years. Around 32,621 MT of LPG was imported during July-March, 2009. CNG The main reason of encouragement of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) use is to improve environment and to decrease the dependency on other fuels. The price difference between petrol and CNG is about 60.0 percent, thats why vehicles are being converted to CNG day by day and around 2.0 Million vehicles are using CNG. The numbers of CNG stations are also increasing day by day and there are around 2,700 established CNG stations in Pakistan which covers an investment of Rs.70 billion. At present Pakistan is the largest CNG user country. Oil The estimation of recoverable reserves of crude oil in total in Pakistan were around 313 million barrels in January 2009. The average production of crude oil during July-March 2008-09 was 66532 barrels per day. The average production of crude oil during last year was 70166 barrels per day which shows a negative growth of 5.2 percent. The average production of oil in Pakistan remained 67,438 BOPD in 2006-2007. Oil and gas development company and limited (OGDCL) was the biggest oil producing company in Pakistan with a production of around 13.261 million barrels which contribute around 54% of the total oil production per year of Pakistan with an average rate of 36,332 BOPD. After that British Petroleum (BP) is the second largest oil producing company with total contribution of 16% of total oil production in Pakistan. BP produces around 4.025 million barrels averagely with 11,029 BOPD. Pakistan oil fields limited (POL) produced around 3.231 million barrels. There are other small oil production companies as well in Pakistan. Coal The total estimation of coal recourses of Pakistan is more than 185 billion tones. Thar coalfield (Sindh province) is the biggest coal source which worth more than 175 billion tones. Pakistans coal is generally ranked from lignite to sub bituminous. The production of coal was decreased in during July-March 2008-09 by 28.8%. About 60.4% of the total coal production is being consumed by the brick kilns industry. Cement industry is also using a large fraction of coal which is around 37.4% and almost all cement industry is being switched on coal from furnace oil. As energy demand is increasing day by day and government is reshaping the energy policies. Due to high prices of imported energy government of Pakistan has decided to increase the share of coal from 05 to 19% in the overall energy mix up to 2030. In view of expected shortfall of energy resources and electricity during the next 10 years the maximum utilization of coal would be needed for power generation and gasification. Accordi ng to government energy security plan, a target has been set which is to generate about 20,000 MW power from coal by 2030 and 50% by 2050. Nuclear Energy: Pakistan is the 7th nuclear power of the world. In 2009, the nuclear power plants contribute up to 2.4% share to the total electricity production in Pakistan. Pakistan has two working nuclear reactors which produce about 425 MW power for the generation of electricity. The third nuclear reactor will be operational in spring of 2010. In Pakistan nuclear power contributes very small to the electricity production. The total generating capacity is around 20 GWe while in 2006; 98 billion kWh gross was generated. First nuclear power reactor was started in 1971 in KANUPP near Karachi and it has small capacity of 125 MWe and it is pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR). The second unit was started in May 2000 and is known as Chashma-1 in Punjab. It has capacity of 325 MWe. It is pressurized water reactor (PWR) and was supplied by Chinas CNNC under safeguards. It is also known as CHASNUPP-1. In December 2005 construction of its twin Chashma-2 was started. It is reported that it cost PKR 51.46 billion (US$ 860 million, $350 million were financed by China). But these sources are not sufficient to overcome this energy crises and Pakistan needs to develop renewable energy sources. Renewable Energy Sources In Pakistan Pakistan is situated in such a special geographic location that it is blessed with abundant and inexhaustible Renewable Energy (RE) resources. These resources can play an effective and considerable role for the contribution towards energy security of Pakistan. When we look into current world energy scenario in general and energy scenario of Pakistan in particular, the development and adoption of RE technologies makes better sense. Government policies and objectives to develop RE technology are also matching with this sense so that the share of RE in overall energy mix should be at least 5% by the year 2030. Wind potential: 0. 346 Million MW Solar potential: 2.9 Million MW Mini Small Hydel: 2,000 MW [9] There is a significant potential of wind energy in Pakistan especially in the coastal belt of Baluchistan and Sindh, and also in the desert areas of Punjab and Sindh. However this renewable energy source has not been utilized. AEDB collected the wind data of all Pakistan from Pakistan Metrological Department and was analyzed. On the basis of this collected data and analysis, it was stated that the coastal belt of Pakistan has a God gifted 60 km wide (Gharo-Keti Bandar) and 180 km long (up to Hyderabad) wind corridor. This wind corridor has the potential to generate 50,000 MW of electricity. AEDB has done other different surveys in Gharo and Jhimpir regions and some coastal area of Baluchistan. After these surveys it is concluded that in the south region most of the remote villages can be easily electrified through micro wind turbines. Furthermore it is estimated that in Baluchistan Sindh and Northern areas more than 5000 villages can be electrified through wind energy. Sincere efforts and aggressive lobbying has been done by AEDB with national and international investors to invest and to make them realize the tremendous potentials of RE. AEBD is in negotiations with international companies to set up their business in Pakistan. However large wind mills have not been installed yet but 30 wind mills for water pumping have been installed on experimental basis in different parts of Baluchistan and Sindh. In southern coastal areas of Pakistan remote villages are currently electrified with energy and so far more than 17 villages have been electrified using micro wind turbines. Around 95% of total electricity generation is from hydropower in Pakistan. But during summer in hottest and driest months of the year it becomes less productive and cannot meet the energy demands. Also, around 70% of the population lives in 50,000 villages. Many of these villages are very far from the main transmission lines and also it is not economically viable to connect these small villages to the main grid due to their small population. On the other hand solar energy has excellent and significant potential. Pakistan is one of those countries which receive solar radiations at high level throughout the year. Every day it receives an average of about 19 MJ/m2 of solar energy. Studies have been already done and solar systems have been developed and tested. There is a list of different projects which are completed by Pakistan council of Renewable energy technology. Potential Of PV In Pakistan The location of Pakistan is very ideal to take advantage of solar energy as a source of energy because Pakistan is in the Sun Belt region. Solar energy is available abundantly and widely distributed all around the country. Following figure shows solar insolation map for Pakistan. The map shows around 200-250 W/m2 per day. The Baluchistan province is very rich in solar energy. It receives around 19-20 MJ/m2 per day averagely which is equal to 1.93-2.03 MWh/ m2 per day with annual 8-8.5 mean annual sunshine hours. These conditions are ideal for PV and solar energy applications. Solar energy is very good option for off-grid villages. There are around 75,000 off-grid villages which contains 4 million homes and every home accommodates around 4-5 people. These off-grid villages are situated in the Baluchistan and Frontier Province. AEDB has set a target to electrify a thousand villages via solar technology by the year 2010. In this respect the first contract has been given to the Sehgal electronics group (Pakistan). Each home which is electrified with PV will have around 400 W power supply and lead acid batteries for overnight storage. There are also other plans to have local production using PV modules with and estimation of this production is around 3MW/year. Possible Routes For Solar PV In Pakistan The global demand of PV equipment is increasing day by day and due to this fact the prices for PV systems, equipment and electricity has gone down remarkably. PV could be exploited in Pakistan through following two routes. Off-grid Or Stand-Alone Sector Stand-alone systems generate electricity independently of the utility grid. Stand alone systems can be a very good option for the remote areas and very deep located villages, where the extension of power transmission lines would be more costly. Also it could be implemented in environmentally sensitive areas as parks, remote homes and cabins. In rural areas, it could be used for solar water pumps and farm lighting. [12] Grid-Connected Sector Grid-connected PV systems supply extra power when the home systems power supply is not sufficient to fulfill the load. These systems remove the need of battery bank. In some situation, utilities allow net metering, by which the owner can sell extra power back to the utility. Current Solar Energy Applications In Pakistan Both PV and solar thermal have a wide range of applications in Pakistan. Although the scale of utilization and adoption has been very small but it has been utilized for last 25 years in Pakistan. Different applications mainly PV and solar thermal applications are summarized as. Photovoltaics Eighteen PV stations were built by the government in the early 1980s to electrify different villages the country. The installed capacity was nearly 440 kW but due to the lack of technical knowledge and follow up, these systems could not perform as required. Currently in Pakistan solar energy is being used for telephone exchanges stand alone rural electrification, cathodic protection, highway emergency telephones and vaccine refrigeration in hospitals. In different parts of Baluchistan, about 20 solar water pumps have been installed for drinking purposes by The Public Health Department. The northern and western area of Pakistan are mostly hilly and mountain areas (Hindu Kush-Himalayas, HKH region), which are blessed with a lot of sunshine with 4-6 kWh/m2 daily average solar radiation. Seven solar stations were installed in this region in the late 1980s for lighting by different companies. The total capacity of these systems was 234 kW. They are not in operation now due maintenance pro blems. SIEMENS Pakistan has installed many stand alone solar systems in Pakistan. On the Lahore-Islamabad Motorway, it has installed power supply systems for many microwave-link repeater stations and more than 350 emergency call boxes. Solar Thermal Applications There are many applications which utilize solar energy directly by utilizing its heat characteristics. Such applications are much simple, low cost and easy to adopt. The applications include heating and cooling of homes and buildings, cooking, water heating for domestic and industrial use and drying agricultural products. A brief description of such applications in Pakistan is given here. Solar Water Heaters This technology is quite mature in Pakistan but very limited because of its higher capital cost as compared to conventional water heaters which operate on natural gas. But in last couple of years it has started to gain popularity because a number of public sector organizations are working to develop low cost solar water heaters. The prices of natural gas and electricity are increasing day by day, so people are adopting solar water heaters and also private sector has already started the production of such heaters. Solar Cooker Different public sector organizations have been working to develop low cost and efficient design solar cookers. In HKH region of Pakistan, more than 2000 solar cookers are in use. This number is very small. It needs to be more popularized. Pakistan needs to reduce the use of precious forest resources as fuel wood and to replace it with solar cookers. Solar Dryers Solar energy can be very good option for drying agriculture products. By this, we can get very good quality products at much less cost. Northern mountainous areas like Gilgit and Sakardu are very rich in fruit production like apricots which used to be wasted by tons every year. But now solar dryers are being used to dry large quantities of fruit, which is leaving a positive effect on the economy of this area. Different NGOs are working for the popularizing and the use of such dryers. Solar Desalination Drinkable water is unavailable in many parts of Sindh, Baluchistan and southern Punjab and it is very critical issue. Underground water is available but it is highly saline. This saline water is not fit for drinking at all and causes many dangerous diseases such as hypertension. Solar energy can be utilized to convert this available saline water into drinkable water. Solar desalination is very simple, low cost and easy to use. Also it is very easy to adopt. A successful solar desalination project is in operation and it is working very fine and helping to change the life style of the population of Gawader in the Baluchistan province. It consists of 240 stills and each can clean 6000 gallons of seawater per day. 2. Basics And Components Of A PV System Basics Of A PV System Photovoltaic is the technology which converts solar energy directly into electricity and this process is carried out though solar cells. Solar cell is a device which converts sun energy into electricity. We can say solar cell as photovoltaic cell as well but solar cell term will be used when the source of light is defined as â€Å"sun† but if it is not defined than we can say it as photovoltaic cell. Now days when entire world is looking for a neat and clean environment and want to meet huge energy requirements without disturbing and populating the environment, sustainable energy sources seems to play their important role. Researchers and scientists from all around the world are looking for these types of renewable sources. They are trying to get the energy needs from these renewable energy sources. The main advantages of using renewable energy sources are 1. Neat and clean environment 2. Yield of energy is higher 3. Safer for electricity production as compared to convention methods (low voltage) 4. Long life times 5. Low maintenance cost 6. Use of natural sources which are being wasted with time. These are the reason, why people prefer renewable energy sources. There are different types of renewable energy sources as 1. Solar energy 2. Wind energy 3. Tidal energy 4. Geothermal energy 5. Wave power 6. Hydropower 7. Bio energy We will discuss solar energy in detail and its related topics in this report. There are different units in a PV system and all these units combine to make a full working PV system. These are PV System Components 1. PV Panels 2. Trackers and tracking system 3. Array DC Disconnect 4. Blocking diodes 5. Charge Controller 6. Battery Bank 7. System Meter 8. Main DC Disconnect 9. Inverter 10. Kilowatt-Hour Meter 11. Backup Generator PV Panels PV panels are the defining components of a PV system, which uses sunlight to make direct current (DC) electricity. Wafers of semiconductor material are used for this purpose. They use light (photons) to produce electricity (photovoltaic effect). When the electricity is generated than it powers our electric loads such as lights, computers, and refrigerators. PV panels differ from each other on the basis of power rating in watts which is based on their maximum power generation capacity. Solar cell is the fundamental and basic building block in a PV system which acts as power conversion unit of this system. There are different types of solar cells now days available having different power about 1 or 2 watts. Usually solar cells are made of single crystal silicon and they are limited to about 25% efficiency. The reason is that they are most sensitive to IRL (infrared light), and the radiations in this region of electromagnetic spectrum are relatively low in energy. Another type of solar cells is Polycrystalline solar cells. They are made by a special casting process. In this process molten silicon is being poured into a mould, allowed to cool down and then it is sliced into wafers. By this process we can make relatively cheaper cells as compared to single crystal cells, but their efficiency is less than 20%. The reason is that there is internal resistance on the boundaries of silicon crystals which affects the efficiency. The third type of solar cells is amorphous cells and they are made by a special process in which silicon is deposited onto a glass substrate from a reactive gas such as silane (SiH4). These types of solar cells are used in solar powered watches and calculators, but now days bigger modules are also manufactured. They are also rather cheap and their efficiency is only up to 10%. The reason is, since amorphous silicon cell has no crystal structure and there are much internal energy losses. Solar cells are not just restricted to semiconductor materials; solar cells are available now days which convert sun light into electricity by organic molecules. Their efficiency is up to 10%. Apart from various types of silicon, other materials can also be used to make solar cells like cadmium telluride and gallium arsenide. There are different types of cell packings. The most common are raw cells, and they are often with cover sheet. Now we have discussed solar cells. These solar are combined together to make a module to get boosted power for practical purposes. Than these modules are combined together to make a panel, these panels are joined together to form a big array. Trackers And Tracking System Solar tracker is a device on which solar panels are fitted and the motion of the sun is tracked through this device. It ensures that the maximum amount of sunlight will strike to the panel throughout the whole day. Actually it is a mounting rack which follows the sun constantly. By using trackers, we can utilize maximum sunlight and thus can produce more electricity. In the morning time, it is low on eastern horizon while at the sunset it is low at western horizon. But at noon the position of sun is very high in the sky. This motion is due to the rotation of earth. Trackers keep PV modules perpendicular to incoming sun radiations and maximize the energy production. The increment in the energy production using trackers depends on the site and the type of tracker. Usually energy production increases 25 to 40% annually, which is shown in more detail in the following figure. To get maximum efficiency tracker must be placed in a suitable location. A good tracker site is that on which sun can be seen very early in the morning time and receive sunlight until sunset. There should be no solar obstructions like trees and buildings on the site or near the site in order to work perfectly. Before considering the tracker into system design, an evaluation of the site is done using Solar Pathfinder. Trackers are usually mounted on ground and use a heavy steel pole which is sunk into a concrete foundation. There are some systems where the trackers are mounted on the roofs, but it can create structural problems. There are two basic types of trackers. 1. Electrically operated 2. Thermally operated Thermally Operated Trackers These trackers are based on mass transfer from one side to the other side of the tracker to track the sun. This transfer of mass causes the tracker to turn from east to west by following the sun. Actually two tubes filled with Freon (which vaporizes and become gas) are mounted on east and west sides of the tracker. With the sunlight, the temperature of Freon becomes higher on one side of tracker, it starts to become vapors. These vapors take more space than as compared to the liquid Freon, which pushes Freon (liquid) to the other side. This transfer of mass from the one side to the other side of the tracker causes the change in the balance of tracker which eventually rotates it to the west. Usually they are slow